Atomic+Physics

Factors of 10
The powers of ten scale from the sub-atomic particles and to the ends of the universe.

Historic Observations
Democrates - developed complete philosphical picture of atoms Aristotle - rejected atoms Lucretius - opposed Aristotle, a few atoms can combine to make all kinds of matter Daniel Bernoulli - lift is created over a wing if air travels faster above (Bernoulli Principle).Increaing amount of air and temperature, increase pressure. John Dalton - studied color blindness, atoms differ in weights and sizes Albert Einstein -Brownian motion resulted from a force due to collisions between particles William and Lawrence Bragg - revealed planes in matter via X-rays J.J. Thompson - charge flows smoothly in a vacuum tube; magnets deflect the electric beam. Assumed particles present with charge and mass. Ernest Rutherford - discovered the nucleus Neils Bohr - glowing hydrogen gas gave a spectrum of discrete bands; suggested atomic orbitals Max Planck - described the energy at sub-atomic world as quantized. E = hv. This equation helped to explain the spectrum from black bodies. Werner Heisenberg - the uncertainty principle, U_velocity * U_position > h/m Erwin Schrodinger - made the Schrodinger equation William Ramsey - Received a noble prize for this discovery of the noble gases Henri Moisann - successfully separated corrosive fluorine by making equipment out of CaF instead of glass (glass is dissolved by fluorine); discovered SiC by accident Marie Curie - purified polonium and radium James Chadwick - discovered the neutron shooting atoms at beryllium

6 Conservation Laws
Here are the conservation laws that parallel the symmetry laws of the universe as discussed by Feynman:
 * ~ # ||~ Conservation Law ||~ Explanation ||
 * ~ 1 || Energy || There is a number equivalent to all the summed energy of the universe. ||
 * ~ 2 || Linear Momentum || Objects moving in one direction do not spontaneous move in the opposite direction ||
 * ~ 3 || Angular Momentum || There is a number that remains constant equivalent to the rotation of all the nebulae from a distance. ||
 * ~ 4 || Electrical Charge || Adding up all the positive and minus charges gives the same number. ||
 * ~ 5 || Baryon Number || Number of baryons going into a process equals the number coming out. ||
 * ~ 6 || Lepton Number || Total number of leptons in and out of a reaction never changes. ||

Symmetrical Laws
There are analogs to the fundamental laws as summarized by Feynman : For a long time, these laws were believed to be symmetrical at all length and time scales of matter. For instance, the symmetry between position and time is conserved even after a //Lorentz transformation// is performed, as demonstrated by Einstein. We exploit this property when addressing quantum mechanical phenomena that operate within the construct of space-time. Such dependent on the laws of symmetry connects the conservation laws of momentum and energy. However, is it in fact realized that the laws of symmetry at imperfect for certain phenomena. For instance, it has been demonstrated that cooled cobalt atoms "distinguish" or label south poles. That is, cobalt atoms which behave different under the influence of certain magnetic poles. Therefore, there are instances when the apparent universality of the symmetry laws are in fact broken! In a sense there is a distinguishable difference between north and south, left and right, up and down, etc. Nature is only __mostly__ symmetrical.
 * ~ Useful Derived Units ||~ Conservation Law ||
 * x ~ p || momentum ||
 * t ~ E || energy ||
 * theta (rotation) ~ omega || angular momentum ||
 * delta (phase change) ~ C || electrical charge ||

Atomic Radiation[[image:radiation_chart_3.png width="352" height="865" align="right"]]
alpha decay - radioactive atom releases high energy, charged helium. Two proton and neutrons are lost; massive beta decay - neutron spontaneously decays to a proton and high energy electron. The existence of neutrinos were postulated. This increase the number of atoms by one; excited electron gamma decay - high energy radiation produced when protons relax from and excited state; excited proton The Stefan-Boltzmann law established a relationship between temperature of an incandescent solid (Blackbody) and the energy it radiates.

math W = \sigma T^4 math math \sigma = 5.67 \times 10^{-8} watt/m^2 * K^4 math

Max Plank derived a theory to describe Blackbody radiation assuming discrete energy packets.

math E = h \nu = \frac{hc}{\lambda} = \frac{1.24 \times 10^{-6}}{\lambda} eV = E_k + \phi math

A heated solid (i.e. tungsten light bulb) radiates a continuous spectrum of wavelengths. A heated gas radiates discrete wavelengths of energy, atoms radiate specific radiation. Characteristic spectral lines represent each atom.

\lambda(Å) math || 1.24 math || 1.24 \times 10^{2} math || 1.24 \times 10^{3} math || 4 \times 10^{3} math || 7 \times 10^{3} math || 1.24 \times 10^{4} math || 1.24 \times 10^{5} math || 1.24 \times 10^{6} math ||
 * ~ E(eV) ||~ math
 * = 10,000 ||= math
 * = 100 ||= math
 * = 10 ||= math
 * = 3.1 ||= math
 * = 1.8 ||= math
 * = 1.0 ||= math
 * = 0.1 ||= math
 * = 0.01 ||= math

History of the Standard Model
-1918: Weyl introduced the gauge theory -1928: the Dirac equation described the electron and proton and the electromagnetic interactions between each by photons (gauge theory); only particle known were electrons, protons and photons. -1929: Pauli hypothesized the neutrino -1932: Chadwick discovered the neutron, re -1934: Yukawa predicts other neutrinos, the muon and pions. -1955: the antiproton was observed -1956: the neutrino and antineutrino are first observed -?: point-like Fermi interaction theory for beta-decay replaced by intermeadiary gauge boson (W+, W_ and Z). Theory proposed by Weinberg, Salam, Ward and Glashow. -1956: Lee and Yang proposed weak interactions should not be reflection invariant (left is different that n right). -1957: Wu observed experimentally chirality of weak interactions from electrons ejected from radioactiveCo-60

The modern standard model comprises quarks, gluons, and W and Z bosons which are hardly observed. Theories suggest //virtual particles// that are further removed from direct observation. Other proposed particles that have not been observed are X-bosons: axions, photinos, squarks, guinos, magnetic monopoles, dilatons, sparticles(?), etc. Finally the Higgs boson, the most heavilly anticipated particle yet to be observed is believed to give all particles its mass.

Schrodinger's Equation
Schrodinger's equation involves an operation performed on the wave function via the Hamiltonian operator, resulting in the wavefunction times some value. The wave function represents the mysterious wave-particle behavior of electrons, typically of the hydrogen atom. Therefore, there is no physical analog to describe the wave function. However, the square of the wave function represents a probability density (probability/volume) that represents the probability of locating an electron in a defined region of space. The wave function can be broken up into two components: the radial wave component and the angular wave component. The radial wave component has a dependent on the Bohr radius (a_0), is 53 pm. The angular wave component is constant.

Bonds form when there is constructive interference between the wave functions of two atoms.

After the quantum numbers were calculated for a hudrogen atom, Max Born developed ways to describe the shapes of atoms and their orbitals. Specifically, he sought to describe where electrons were located in atom. However, according to Heisenburg's uncertainty principle, finding the position and momentum of any one electron was impossible. Therefore, Born used statistics to instead describe the probabilty to finding electrons in a given region. The famous tool used to calculate the probability density of orbitals came from squaring the wavefunction. This coincides with tools used by physicists today: 1) The summation of a sequence of events is calculated by multiplying the series of events together. 2.) The probability that an event will occer (probability amplitudes) are generated by squaring the magnitude of an event's phasor. Coupling the principle of probability densities with radius distributions, finding the average dwelling of bound electrons in space was possible.

Elementary Particles
A clear description of these particles is provided in Feynman's //QED//. Essentially there are ferimons, bosons and the interaction between them.
 * Fermions** are all particles that obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and include elementary particles of leptons and quarks. Fermions are restricted by Pauli's Exclusion principle which implies that two or more fermions cannot occupy the same state. Of the twelve leptons, 6 are particles of electrons, muons and tauons and neutrinos of the former three. The other 6 are antiparticles. The twelve quarks are also even divided between particles and antiparticles. Of either 6 there are corresponding up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top quarks.
 * 12 leptons: 6 particles [3 (e-, mu-, tau-) and 3 neutrinos (v_e-, v_mu-, v_tau-)]; 6 antiparticles [3 (e+, mu+, tau+) and 3 neutrinos (v_e-, v_mu-, v_tau-)]
 * 12 quarks: 6 particles [u, d, s, c, b, t]; 6 antiparticles (antiquarks) [u-, d-, s-, c-, b-, t-]

Ferimons are singular such as an electron or composite particle called a **baryon** such as a proton comprising a combination of up and down quarks. Baryons comprise three quarks and have strong interactions that give rise to the nuclear forces. **Mesons** are made by one quark and one antiquark and they participate in both weak and strong interactions. The unique combination of quarks and antiquarks yields the charge or interaction of the meson. In essence, mesons are a type of "di-quark, "baryons are a type of "tri-quark," and there is some speculation on the existence of quad- and penta-quarks.

Bosons are responsible for phenomena such as superfluidity as described by Feynman and properties on the Bose-Einstein condensate.
 * Bosons** are sub-atomic particles that obey Bose-Einstein statistics. Several bosons can occupt the same state and are thus the force carrying or interaction particles. Bosons are either elementary or composite. There are six kinds, 4 of which are the photon, gluon (theorized by Murray Gell-Mann), W and Z bosons. The other two are the theoretical Higgs boson and graviton.
 * 4 gauge bosons: (gamma, g, W^+-, Z)
 * 1 Higgs boson: (H^0)
 * 1 Graviton: (G)

In summary, all of the elementary particles consist of **fermions** and **bosons**.

Fermions can only occupy one state at a time and obey Pauli Exclusion principle.Fermionic particles consist of **leptons** (//electron, muon, tauon// and their //neutrinos//) and quarks (//u, d, s, c, b, t//). There are also their corresponding **antiparticles** (i.e. anti-leptons and anti-quarks). All of the known, force carrying **bosonic** particles are //photons, gluons, W// and //Z// particles. These are the 4 **gauge bosons** responsible for the **electromagnetic force** (from photons), the **weak force** (due to W and Z bosons) and the **strong force** (due to gluons). The other two bosons are //Higgs bosons// and //Gravitons,// related to mass and gravity respectively. Bosons can occupy several states unlike Pauli-limited fermions. These are all the elementary particles that can combine to form composite (multi-quark) **hadrons**. **Mesonic** (2-quark) particles such as //decay products// or **baryonic** (3-quark) particles such as //protons// (2 up quarks + 1 down quark). Baryons do not decay make up the constituents of atoms (nucleus and electrons).

Additional descriptors of elementary physics are flavor, color and parity. Only quarks possess color charge, which appears to be related to the strong interaction of the gluon. Image

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Nuclear Fusion

Where does the sun get its energy? The energy from the sun is due to the fusion of protons (charged hydrogen nuclei) colliding and combining. The nuclear replusion is overcome by the influence of gravity. According to Einstein's equation, E=mc^2, a small amount of mass can generate a large amount of energy. JET is world famous nuclear fusion reactor. Hydrogen plasma 10 times otter than the sun is contained by large magnets. Impurities are seen glowing with very little hydrogen present. Once te amount of input energy is reduced, fusion will be a viable energy source. The projection is 30-40 ears before nuclear fusion powers our homes.

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